diff --git a/docs/VERIFIER_PLURALITY.md b/docs/VERIFIER_PLURALITY.md
index a364a071..a6bdf58e 100644
--- a/docs/VERIFIER_PLURALITY.md
+++ b/docs/VERIFIER_PLURALITY.md
@@ -81,11 +81,11 @@ independently retained inputs when reviewing an archived decision. Reordering
 JSON keys or changing whitespace leaves the fingerprints unchanged; changing
 an input value changes its fingerprint. A rejected malformed quorum may have
 no fingerprints, and a live API call with non-JSON witness values has no
-portable input binding. The output is neither signed nor timestamped: anyone
-holding the inputs can generate a new output, and witness freshness is checked
-at the time of replay. A matching fingerprint establishes content identity
-under this canonicalization, not custody, signer identity, approval, or the
-truth of a report.
+portable input binding. The output is unsigned: anyone holding the inputs can
+generate a new output, and witness freshness is checked at the time of replay.
+A matching fingerprint establishes content identity under this
+canonicalization, not custody, signer identity, approval, or the truth of a
+report.
 
 The CLI requires strict UTF-8 and rejects duplicate JSON object names in every
 input file, including escaped spellings of the same name and duplicates nested
@@ -400,6 +400,13 @@ bundle to pass with the retained challenge **now**, and requires its integrity
 hash to match the signed quorum's artifact hash and type. When these inputs are
 supplied, the CLI also requires `witness_met` for exit `0`. A changed challenge,
 tampered bundle, mismatched artifact, or expired challenge fails this check.
+For a structurally checkable quorum, `witness_evaluation.evaluated_at` records
+the single UTC millisecond instant used for this freshness check, and
+`clock_source: "local_system"` identifies the machine clock. Both fields are
+present for a failed witness replay too. They are unsigned observations, not
+a trusted timestamp, proof of when a signer checked, or evidence that the
+challenge is still fresh when someone later reads the result. Save the input
+fingerprints and rerun verification for a current decision.
 Use `verifySignedVerificationQuorum(quorum, { policy, witnessBundle,
 expectedChallenge })` for the same check in browser JavaScript. Supplying only
 one of the bundle and challenge is a usage error.
diff --git a/docs/aml-signed-verification-quorum.js b/docs/aml-signed-verification-quorum.js
index 63a1460c..4d4b839d 100644
--- a/docs/aml-signed-verification-quorum.js
+++ b/docs/aml-signed-verification-quorum.js
@@ -399,12 +399,17 @@ export async function verifySignedVerificationQuorum(quorum, {
       }
     }
     if (witnessBundle !== undefined) {
-      const witness = await verifyWitnessBundle(witnessBundle, { expectedChallenge });
+      // Snapshot the local clock once for the freshness decision. The timestamp
+      // describes this replay, not when a signer checked or a trusted time source.
+      const replayNow = Date.now();
+      const witness = await verifyWitnessBundle(witnessBundle, { expectedChallenge, now: replayNow });
       const artifactMatches = rebuilt.artifact_type === 'aml-witness-bundle/1' &&
         rebuilt.artifact_hash === witnessBundle?.integrity?.value;
       result.witness_met = valid && witness.valid &&
         witness.checks?.verifier_held_challenge === true && artifactMatches;
       result.witness_evaluation = {
+        evaluated_at: new Date(replayNow).toISOString(),
+        clock_source: 'local_system',
         local_bundle_valid: witness.valid,
         reason: witness.reason,
         retained_challenge_matched: witness.checks?.verifier_held_challenge === true,
diff --git a/independent/python/README.md b/independent/python/README.md
index 7b21773d..1768e1df 100644
--- a/independent/python/README.md
+++ b/independent/python/README.md
@@ -85,9 +85,14 @@ and each supplied held policy, bundle, and challenge. These are SHA-256 hashes
 of complete `sorted-json-v1` JSON values, not hashes of the source file bytes.
 The JavaScript and Python comparison harness checks their agreement, including
 changed held policies and challenges. An unsupported input has no portable
-input binding. The output is unsigned and replay time affects witness freshness;
-retain the inputs and evaluate the decision again when needed. These hashes
-identify evaluated content, not an independent certification.
+input binding. For a structurally checkable quorum with witness inputs,
+`witness_evaluation.evaluated_at` is the UTC millisecond instant sampled once
+from the verifier's local clock and used for challenge freshness. The
+`clock_source` is `local_system`. A failed witness replay records this instant
+too. It is an unsigned observation, not a trusted timestamp or evidence of
+when the signer checked; retain the inputs and evaluate again for a current
+decision. These hashes identify evaluated content, not an independent
+certification.
 
 To turn independently retained fingerprints into an acceptance gate, pass a
 strict `aml-signed-quorum-input-expectations/1` JSON file with one or more
diff --git a/independent/python/verify_signed_quorum.py b/independent/python/verify_signed_quorum.py
index f7fdeae4..8fdf51bc 100644
--- a/independent/python/verify_signed_quorum.py
+++ b/independent/python/verify_signed_quorum.py
@@ -9,6 +9,7 @@
 import argparse
 import base64
 import binascii
+import datetime as dt
 import hashlib
 import json
 import re
@@ -378,7 +379,12 @@ def verify_quorum(quorum, policy=None, witness_bundle=None, expected_challenge=N
                 **({"trusted_dissent": trusted_dissent} if veto_dissent else {}),
             }
         if with_witness:
-            witness_valid, witness_reason = verify_bundle(witness_bundle, expected_challenge=expected_challenge)
+            # Use a single millisecond snapshot for freshness and its reported
+            # observation time. This local clock is not an authenticated clock.
+            replay_now = dt.datetime.now(dt.timezone.utc)
+            replay_now = replay_now.replace(microsecond=replay_now.microsecond // 1000 * 1000)
+            witness_valid, witness_reason = verify_bundle(
+                witness_bundle, now=replay_now, expected_challenge=expected_challenge)
             bundle_hash = (witness_bundle.get("integrity", {}).get("value")
                            if isinstance(witness_bundle, dict) and
                            isinstance(witness_bundle.get("integrity"), dict) else None)
@@ -386,6 +392,8 @@ def verify_quorum(quorum, policy=None, witness_bundle=None, expected_challenge=N
                                         artifact_hash == bundle_hash)
             result["witness_met"] = valid and witness_valid and witness_artifact_matches
             result["witness_evaluation"] = {
+                "evaluated_at": replay_now.isoformat(timespec="milliseconds").replace("+00:00", "Z"),
+                "clock_source": "local_system",
                 "local_bundle_valid": witness_valid, "reason": witness_reason,
                 "artifact_matches": witness_artifact_matches,
             }
diff --git a/scripts/check-consumer-compatibility.mjs b/scripts/check-consumer-compatibility.mjs
index a1e83121..3afc5dfd 100644
--- a/scripts/check-consumer-compatibility.mjs
+++ b/scripts/check-consumer-compatibility.mjs
@@ -212,6 +212,11 @@ try {
       !witnessBound.replayable_claims_consistent) {
     throw new Error('Installed-package signed quorum CLI did not recheck the retained witness');
   }
+  if (witnessBound.witness_evaluation?.clock_source !== 'local_system' ||
+      new Date(witnessBound.witness_evaluation.evaluated_at).toISOString() !==
+        witnessBound.witness_evaluation.evaluated_at) {
+    throw new Error('Installed-package signed quorum CLI omitted its local replay time');
+  }
   const fingerprint = value => createHash('sha256')
     .update(canonicalJSONStringifyBrowser(value)).digest('hex');
   if (witnessBound.input_fingerprints?.canonicalization !== 'sorted-json-v1' ||
diff --git a/scripts/check-signed-quorum-python.mjs b/scripts/check-signed-quorum-python.mjs
index dc5b0126..b2b52d1d 100644
--- a/scripts/check-signed-quorum-python.mjs
+++ b/scripts/check-signed-quorum-python.mjs
@@ -38,6 +38,7 @@ async function compare(name, quorum, policy, expected, { bundle, challenge, expe
   if (bundle && challenge) args.push('--bundle', save(`${name}-bundle.json`, bundle),
     '--challenge', save(`${name}-challenge.json`, challenge));
   if (expectedInputs) args.push('--expect-inputs', save(`${name}-expected-inputs.json`, expectedInputs));
+  const replayStarted = Date.now();
   const run = spawnSync('python3', args, {
     encoding: 'utf8', env: { ...process.env, PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: '1' }
   });
@@ -48,12 +49,21 @@ async function compare(name, quorum, policy, expected, { bundle, challenge, expe
     policy, expectedInputFingerprints: expectedInputs,
     ...(bundle ? { witnessBundle: bundle, expectedChallenge: challenge } : {})
   });
+  const replayFinished = Date.now();
   for (const field of ['valid', 'threshold_met', ...(policy ? ['policy_met'] : []),
     ...(bundle ? ['witness_met', 'replayable_claims_consistent'] : []),
     ...(expectedInputs ? ['inputs_met'] : [])]) {
     assert.equal(py[field], js[field], `${name}: ${field}: ${run.stderr} ${run.stdout}`);
   }
   if (bundle) {
+    for (const result of [py, js]) {
+      assert.equal(result.witness_evaluation.clock_source, 'local_system', name);
+      const observed = result.witness_evaluation.evaluated_at;
+      assert.match(observed, /^\d{4}-\d\d-\d\dT\d\d:\d\d:\d\d\.\d{3}Z$/, name);
+      assert.ok(Date.parse(observed) >= replayStarted && Date.parse(observed) <= replayFinished,
+        `${name}: freshness time must come from the replay interval`);
+      assert.equal(new Date(Date.parse(observed)).toISOString(), observed, name);
+    }
     assert.equal(py.witness_evaluation.local_bundle_valid, js.witness_evaluation.local_bundle_valid, name);
     assert.equal(py.witness_evaluation.artifact_matches, js.witness_evaluation.artifact_matches, name);
     assert.deepEqual(py.replayable_claims_evaluation, js.replayable_claims_evaluation, name);
diff --git a/test/browser-signed-quorum-cli.test.js b/test/browser-signed-quorum-cli.test.js
index 4c726a25..7967ba8d 100644
--- a/test/browser-signed-quorum-cli.test.js
+++ b/test/browser-signed-quorum-cli.test.js
@@ -287,9 +287,15 @@ test('signed quorum rechecks the named witness against a separately held challen
   const bundlePath = write('bundle.json', bundle);
   const challengePath = write('held-challenge.json', challenge);
 
+  const replayStarted = Date.now();
   const replayed = await verifySignedVerificationQuorum(quorum, {
     witnessBundle: bundle, expectedChallenge: challenge
   });
+  assert.equal(replayed.witness_evaluation.clock_source, 'local_system');
+  assert.ok(Date.parse(replayed.witness_evaluation.evaluated_at) >= replayStarted);
+  assert.ok(Date.parse(replayed.witness_evaluation.evaluated_at) <= Date.now());
+  assert.equal(new Date(Date.parse(replayed.witness_evaluation.evaluated_at)).toISOString(),
+    replayed.witness_evaluation.evaluated_at);
   assert.equal(replayed.valid, true);
   assert.equal(replayed.threshold_met, true);
   assert.equal(replayed.witness_met, true);
@@ -303,8 +309,31 @@ test('signed quorum rechecks the named witness against a separately held challen
   assert.equal(accepted.status, 0, accepted.stderr);
   assert.equal(JSON.parse(accepted.stdout).witness_met, true);
   assert.equal(JSON.parse(accepted.stdout).replayable_claims_consistent, true);
+  assert.equal(JSON.parse(accepted.stdout).witness_evaluation.clock_source, 'local_system');
+  assert.ok(Date.parse(JSON.parse(accepted.stdout).witness_evaluation.evaluated_at) >= replayStarted);
+  assert.ok(Date.parse(JSON.parse(accepted.stdout).witness_evaluation.evaluated_at) <= Date.now());
   assert.deepEqual(JSON.parse(accepted.stdout).input_fingerprints, replayed.input_fingerprints);
 
+  // Prove the printed instant is the same single instant used for freshness.
+  const originalNow = Date.now;
+  const afterExpiry = Date.parse(challenge.expires_at) + 1;
+  let clockReads = 0;
+  Date.now = () => { clockReads += 1; return afterExpiry; };
+  try {
+    const expired = await verifySignedVerificationQuorum(quorum, {
+      witnessBundle: bundle, expectedChallenge: challenge
+    });
+    assert.equal(clockReads, 1);
+    assert.equal(expired.valid, true);
+    assert.equal(expired.threshold_met, true);
+    assert.equal(expired.witness_met, false);
+    assert.equal(expired.witness_evaluation.reason, 'AML_CHALLENGE_EXPIRED');
+    assert.equal(expired.witness_evaluation.evaluated_at, new Date(afterExpiry).toISOString());
+    assert.equal(expired.witness_evaluation.clock_source, 'local_system');
+  } finally {
+    Date.now = originalNow;
+  }
+
   const completePolicy = {
     schema: 'aml-signed-quorum-held-policy/4', prototype: true,
     artifact_type: quorum.artifact_type, artifact_hash: quorum.artifact_hash,